19th century RPG

Politics in the 19th century

The nineteenth century is defined as the era of the unconditional victory of capitalism in the developing countries of Europe and North America. In the 19th century, railways and steamships, airplanes and automobiles, telephones and radios, telegraphs appeared, and the discoveries of science in the last third of the century led to the formation of new industries such as chemical industry, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, oil refining and oil production. Thus, technical progression, based on the discoveries of science, for the first time became a direct factor in the development of the economy. At the same time, the internal contradictions of the capitalist production method began to manifest themselves most clearly. Local overproduction crises in some industries were replaced by cycles that covered the entire industry, the financial sector and trade.In countries such as England, partly France, the USA, Sweden and Belgium, elements of a civil society and representative democracy strengthened in the 19th century, although the modernization of politics has not yet won important victories. And in countries such as Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, it has just begun. This procession is world-historic, as sooner or later all states join it. Based on the chronology, effectiveness and intensity of industrialization, they are divided into three echelons of capitalist development. The first echelon consists of Western countries, the second - the countries of medium development (Russia belongs to them), the third - the states of the so-called third world.

The Russian Empire

The 19th century was a period of great transformations for Russia, both politically and socially. In it, the country has transformed from a traditional agricultural society into a modern industrial one. The century also witnessed significant political upheavals, including the end of the Romanov dynasty, the abolition of serfdom, and the emergence of revolutionary movements.The economy was based mainly on agriculture, with an archaic structure and minor technical modernization. Most of the land, and the best land, was in the hands of the upper classes, and the freed serfs bore the heaviest tax burden. Industrialization developed significantly from 1880 to the war. — At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian economy achieved certain successes, such as the liberation of serfs (1861), the expansion of the great railway lines, which connected a huge territory and facilitated peasant emigration to Siberia, the beginning of the exploitation of raw materials and energy sources; Western foreign financing was also introduced. — Despite these reforms and innovations, the economic situation in Russia in 1914 by the beginning of the First World War was as follows: Agriculture was the basis of economic production and was very backward. Life in the Russian countryside was on the margins of the agrarian transformations that took place

International relations

International relations in the 19th century were marked by many events: the colonial expansion of European countries, which began in the 18th century. European colonies appeared in America, Asia, Africa, and later in Australia.Many European residents moved there, and the local population fell under their rule. At the end of the 19th century, the leading European powers almost completely divided the world into colonies and spheres of influence. In the 19th century, the most important reason for the seizure of colonies was the need to provide the industry of developed countries with raw materials and fuel and create markets for the sale of finished industrial products. India is under British rule. The possession of India remained for England one of the main foundations of its strength and prosperity. In May 1857, three Sepoy regiments rebelled. They killed the British officers, burned the barracks and marched towards Delhi. On September 13, 1857, the British launched an assault on Delhi and occupied the city after six days of bloody fighting. The Sepoy rebellion was soon suppressed. The beginning of the French

The leading countries

First of all, such a country was Great Britain, where industry developed rapidly in the 19th century, machine tools, steam engines were introduced, and railways were built at a rapid pace already in the middle of the century. Until the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, it was also a leader in industrial development largely due to its colonies, especially in India and southern Africa. The United States was in second place, but at the beginning of the 20th century they broke ahead, for example, in the development of the automotive industry (Ford, conveyor). Germany was in third place (the German Empire, the Second Reich), however, it appeared as a single state only in 1871. France was in fourth place. Belgium, Holland and Sweden had good results in industrial development in the 19th century, but their share in the global economy was small due to the population of several million people in each country.

mentality

Children. It is sad, but the parents of the XIX century were prepared for the fact that their child would not live a year: the infant mortality was colossal. This was facilitated by widespread unsanitary conditions, a shortage of medical personnel, and too few maternity hospitals. And, if noble women in labor received at least some help, then women of lower classes often gave birth at home, not relying on doctors.Although the theatre still plays a big role in culture, in those days it was not only a cultural institution, but also a place where you can meet and communicate. There was little entertainment, so the theatre was very popular and even nobles, far from art, regularly attended performances, looking there, however, not a stage, but pretty women. The English mentality: The generations of Hanoverians preceding Victoria led a very dissolute lifestyle: illegitimate children, alcoholism, debauchery. The prestige of the British monarchy was low. The Queen had to rectify the situation. Men and women had to forget that they had a body. Courtship consisted of ritual conversations and symbolic gestures. Words about the body and feelings were replaced by euphemisms. Girls were not supposed to know anything about childbirth. The representatives of the middle class had the confidence that prosperity was the reward for virtue.

Attitude towards women in Europe 19th century

Revolutions swept through Europe in a wave, after which the working conditions of workers and the position of women in society began to improve, and in general they began to pay more attention to human rights, and not only to his duties. In the UK, the human rights situation has been difficult relatively recently. The workers worked for 14 hours or even more in dark, damp, cold mines for mere pennies. It was, without exaggeration, almost slave labor. As for women, unmarried women enjoyed relative freedom: they could own property, act as a trustee or trustee. A married woman could not do anything without the consent of her spouse. She was no longer allowed to own property, file lawsuits, and she could not even make a will on her own, since her husband could challenge it.After the last revolution in France, it became possible to file for divorce, and a man and a woman could marry outside the church: this is how civil marriage appeared. However, the new family code confirmed the primacy of the man in the family, and therefore the husband could fully dispose of the property of his wife and minor children. But the worst thing was that for disobedience he could send any member of the family to prison, be it a wife or a child.The Prussian man was also considered the main one in the family. His wife's property was under his full control, except for the lands received as a dowry. The spouse could not work, conduct litigation and deal with other matters without her husband's consent. As for the care of the children, the wife had to provide them with care, and the husband decided in which vein to raise them, and supported them financially, of course. A woman in Germany had slightly more rights: she could work and use what she had earned according to her understanding. She could make transactions only with her husband's consent, but he also asked her advice on how to dispose of her property.

Relations with women in the Russian Empire

In Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, a woman could own property on an equal footing with a man, go to court and even initiate a divorce. However, maybe it was only for a good reason for the church. Women in society could establish cooperatives, engage in charity and independently decide what to spend their money on. When marrying a man of a higher class, a woman could change her status in society, but if her chosen one was a lower position, the woman remained in her class. The law provided for such rights, but in practice the independence of women was condemned by society, besides, women often simply did not know their rights.A huge disadvantage of the legislation was that in personal relationships the wife had to obey her husband, treat him with love and respect, be compliant and accommodating. Without her husband's permission, she could not get an education and decide on a job. In matters of raising children, the head of the family took the primacy. As for domestic violence, this has happened before. But it was indecent to talk about it openly, and that's why women were silent in such cases. If the man performed obedience in the church, which served as a punishment for what he had done, then there were no more reasons for divorce.

Childbearing in the 19th century

Marriage in the modern era was considered inseparable from the birth of children. Lomonosov wrote: "The first years after marriage are fruitless, therefore, such marriage is not marriage." Some noblewomen became pregnant 15-22 times in their lives, but due to the prevalence of miscarriages and stillbirths, only a few children lived to adulthood.The programming of a woman's life for a series of recurring pregnancies, the stereotypical perception of them as the only possible female destiny potentially contain the devaluation of this state, which was considered insignificant. Moral and socio-cultural canons oriented women to pregnancy as the meaning of women's existence. For a woman who has at least one child, it was supposed to be unthinkable to engage in self-education. Reading or teaching a married lady, and even with a child, was extremely condemned in society. The age of the first-born women in the late XVIII - early XIX century averaged 18 years.Pregnancy was considered shameful, so women were not captured in position. It has survived to this day, when many women are not photographed in a state of pregnancy. Remember if your mothers and grandmothers have pregnant photos. Childbirth was considered as a borderline state between life and death, their outcome was always unclear. Women and their relatives were morally ready for the fact that the woman in labour could die in labour.While it was not customary for husbands abroad to be present at the birth of their wives, in Russia this was considered not only the norm, but also preferable and was called "conscious fatherhood". Husbands often helped with everything they could, supported women in labor, massaged their backs and limbs, and prayed

Medicine in the 19th century

In the 19th century, medicine developed: doctors began to study and practice more, improved surgical manipulations, invented new tools and discovered medicines that relieved diseases and helped save lives. We will talk about the most important discoveries of this century — asepsis and anesthesia, the creation of a phonendoscope and the isolation of aspirin from willow bark, which was helped by village healers. "These murders must stop!" Asepsis and antiseptics Boiled water and a clean cloth were used during operations back in Ancient Greece. But the fight against wound pollution began to be seriously discussed in the middle of the XIX century. In 1846, the obstetrician Ignaz Semmelweis, who worked at the Central Vienna Hospital, asked himself: what is the reason for the high mortality rate in maternity wards? Patients died of fever more often than from smallpox and cholera, and doctors called the cause anything: a violation of diet, emotional shock, God's will.During this period, a completely natural scientific concept of understanding the processes of life, death and the appearance of diseases developed in medicine. This has fundamentally changed the idea of the importance and necessity of developing diagnostic methods. At the state level, bills and programs are being introduced to improve the environment in cities, prevent road injuries, epidemics, and maintain high-quality sanitary conditions in places of common residence. In connection with the identification of the influence of factors of everyday life, industry, and climatic conditions on a person, hygienic standards for workers in factories, hospitals, and almshouses are beginning to be introduced. During the same period, prototypes of driver's licenses appeared in Germany and France, but no driver's commission was provided.

Fashion in 19th century (1)

Men's and women's fashion of the 19th century did not lag too far behind each other in terms of reforms, although the fair sex had much more elements for changes.The men's outfit of the second half of the 19th century was functionally divided into several variants: Home, Everyday, Business card (for making visits to acquaintances), Ballroom (respectively, for social events). White shirts with buttons with turn-down and stand-up collars gave way to manishkas in the 60s. Pants from the 50s have also undergone changes - first they were worn on strips, then without. Later, lamps appeared on them, and the lower part expanded significantly. By the 90s, the fashion for striped or plaid trousers of baggy cut with a narrowing towards the bottom was in the floor. What to wear to the ball? The ceremonial costume was considered to be a fack of classic black or other colours, and a white vest to it. Also, sometimes fashionistas supplemented the tailcoat with a tailcoat according to the weather. For business cards, English fashion has given birth to a new type of costume, which was called a business card. If the tailcoat was two-breasted, then this suit is single-breasted. Also here, instead of sharp ones, the tails were rounded and there was a cut line. The colours of the suit are black and gray. Vests could have been a bright touch. The business card was a daytime type of clothing, unlike a ball gown. And at the end of the century, the range of men's suits expanded with tuxedos.As everyday clothes, they wore a jacket, as well as jackets and jackets. At home, they preferred velvet blouses and all kinds of jackets.If we talk about outerwear, its choice among the representatives of the stronger sex was also great - an elongated fur coat, a coat with a cape, a sack coat (bag-shaped), a raincoat with a cape, but without sleeves, a short coat.

Fashion in 19th century (2)

France still had an imprehant trends in women's fashion around the world. And since the middle of the century, women's costumes, which were already quite lush, have acquired even more pretentious forms. If we talk about the history of fashion, in its annals this period is better known as the "Fashion of the Second Empire". The colour palette of the outfits was very diverse, with bright shades: red, lilac, pink, yellow. There is also a wide variety of fabrics - from satin, silk and velvet to wool and reps. Ribbons, fringe, artificial flowers, lace, embroidery, etc. were used as a decoration. The most fashionable innovation of this fashion era was crinoline, which also came from French lands. The structure was assembled from a whale moustache, steel hoops or willow rods. It was worn under the lower skirt to give volume and splendour. A couple of decades later, the form of crinolin turned from round to oval. Women necessarily wore a tight corset under the dresses, and the lines of the outfits themselves emphasised the natural waistline. The shoulder line at that time was lowered. The difference between casual dresses and ball gowns was that the latter often had a deep neckline and no sleeves. Among the outerwear it is worth listing: Fitted vests, Capes, Veils, Mantles and shawls. Among the accessories, a handbag, an umbrella and a binoculos were mandatory. And with the popularisation of travel, bathing and travel suits have also become fashionable. A separate type of clothing can be called Amazons - women's suits for riding (a women's saddle meant that both legs remained on one side).

19th century etiquette (1) Europe

If a gentleman saw a lady on the street from the window, he shouldn't have worshipped her, although he could have done it barely noticeably if the woman noticed him herself. In general, men should avoid this gesture, because if others saw it, they could give the bow excessive importance and let out unpleasant gossip. Representatives of the upper strata of society should avoid the use of proverbs or the use of puns in every possible way during the conversation. Ladies were advised not to enter into long arguments, but also to talk about religion and interrupt the speaker. At the same time, women should be aware of current events. Letters should have been answered immediately, using the appropriate paper. If the addressee was a close friend, it was acceptable to use thin paper for notes. But business letters were written on plain paper. The greetings should have reflected your attitude to the recipient, for example: "dear madam", "sincerely yours". If a man on the street, riding a horse, met a lady walking on foot, he should have dismounted first and only then started a conversation with her. It was considered impolite to force a woman to look up from the bottom while talking to the rider. If you move to the Victorian era right now and find yourself on a crowded street, you will be surprised at how quiet this place is. At that time, it was considered rude to speak loudly or in some other way that attracted the attention of others. Therefore, all conversations were relatively quiet.In some Asian countries, a loud and prolonged burp after a meal was considered and is still considered the highest form of compliment to the person who cooked food. And in the Victorian era, people around would be shocked if they heard someone's burp. For this man, his action would mean social death.Strict secular etiquette prescribed ladies to wear a light dress with a neckline opening their shoulders and arms, as well as very long gloves and light pumps at the ball.

19th century etiquette (2) Europe

At the same time, the woman was always accompanied by someone, and usually it was her mother. She made sure that her daughter followed all the established rules of behaviour. A man could only dance once with the same woman, and if a lady refused to dance, he shouldn't have insisted.Also, a gentleman shouldn't have invited a lady to a dance if he hadn't met her before. Acquaintance could be organised through the master of ceremonies, the mistress of the house or a member of her family. Gentlemen were also advised not to attend the ball if he can't dance. You should have danced with the lady carefully so as not to damage the companion's dress: then the thin skirts were easily torn. At the same time, the man had to accompany his last dance partner to dinner, then serve her and then escort her back to the ballroom again. Representatives of the upper strata of society were forbidden to speak in a high and piercing or shitty tone. Moderation of tone was considered polite, and a sharp and loud voice was considered vulgar. At the same time, people who spoke too quietly were considered "unpleasant". It was necessary to leave the ball as quietly and discreetly as possible. If the departing person met the hostess of the ball on the way, he had to quietly say goodbye to her, but it was forbidden to look for her specifically.

Innursement and marriage

During a romantic walk, a man had the right to offer a hand to a girl only if the road was uneven. It was the only touch allowed between a man and a woman who are not engaged to each other. A lady from the upper strata of society was not allowed to accept generous or expensive gifts from a man who was not related to her or was not engaged to her. According to one of the etiquette experts of the 1870s-1890s, Professor Thomas E. Hill, there were only 4 subjects that a woman could accept from a gentleman while maintaining decency: confectionery, flowers, books and notes. At the same time, men were forbidden to give a lady expensive gifts if she was not their bride or relative. So, etiquette required the gentleman to give flowers, fruits or candy. These gifts were perishable and therefore did not impose any obligations on the lady who received them.

The Etiquette of the 19th century Russian Empire (1)

Until the age of sixteen, the girl was considered too young to move in the world. And although this did not mean complete isolation - she traveled with her family and even with the permission of her parents could appear in the living room - the young lady did not sit with adults and was only in the company of her peers in separate rooms. But after 16, the girl was allowed not only to appear in theaters and dance at balls, but also to change children's simple outfits for dresses with a neckline, wear complex hairstyles with curled curls and even wear jewelry. 2. Each woman had a special ballroom book, in which the names of the gentlemen who invited a representative of the fair sex to a dance in advance were recorded. The partner had the right to refuse a man only because she was unwell or tired, but in that case she could no longer dance this dance with someone else. The young lady herself was strictly forbidden to invite a gentleman, as well as to show her affection to him. 3. It was considered indecent to touch the offer touch the hand offered during the ball with more than your fingertips. In general, touching was extremely "limited", especially in relation to girls, and only a married lady could kiss her hand. 4. It was the woman who decided whether to accept the acquaintance or not, and therefore she was given the right to greet the first. 5. Detaining a partner after dancing more than necessary was also a manifestation of bad manners, since in this way the girl deprived other ladies of the attention of this gentleman.

The Etiquette of the 19th century Russian Empire(2)

Contrary to popular opinion about the relaxation of etiquette for males, the young man's first outing also had a number of formalities. For example, it was necessary to have an impeccable appearance, since the first impression cannot be made twice. The young man was obliged to treat all young ladies equally courteously and politely: rich and poor, beautiful and not so. 2. If a dance master asked a man to dance with a certain lady, the gentleman hadno right to refuse, because at the ball he was, first of all, a dancer and had to forget about everything else. It was also considered bad form not to invite a lonely bored young lady or not to dance at all. 3. The gentleman was obliged to get up when the lady approached and not sit down until she left or sat down. It was also necessary to let her pass ahead, passing into the room. 4. During the dance, the man had to entertain his partner with a conversation, touching on topics of interest to her. After the dance, the gentleman was obliged to escort his lady to friends or relatives, thanking her several times for the honor she had done him. 5. If a young man danced with a girl several times in the evening, then this could well mean the seriousness of his intentions towards his partner. Otherwise, such behavior cast a shadow on the reputation of the young lady.

Diseases of the 19th century

Epidemics of plague, cholera, malaria, scarlet fever, typhus, etc. General overview. The population of Russia has always been ill with contagious diseases. There were massive epidemics affecting the entire empire (or at least most of it), local epidemics occurred, limited to one city. There were several natural foci of various diseases on the vast territory of the Russian Empire: for example, Bessarabia has always been ill with the plague, Central Asia with malaria, and Crimea with leprosy.

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The capital of the Russian Empire in the XIX century was St. Petersburg. He was the heart of the country from 1712 to 1918, except for the short reign of young Peter II Alekseevich, when Moscow regained this status. The Peter and Paul Fortress, from which the city began, was laid in 1703 by order of Peter I Alekseevich. As the capital, it was built initially - the first buildings were the residences of the king and his associates, a number of administrative buildings. Austria - city Vienna France - city Paris Spain - city Madrid, Portugal - city of Lisbon Prussia - city Berlin England - city London Sweden - Stockholm Denmark - Copenhagen The German Empire is the capital of Berlin

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